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Hello, American History Teller listeners. I have an exciting announcement. I'm going on tour and coming to a theater near you. This live show is a thrilling evening of history, storytelling, and music, with a full band accompanying me as we look back to explore the days that made America. And they aren't the days that you might think. Sure, everyone knows July 4th, 1776. We'll be hearing a lot about that date this year. But there are many other days that are maybe even more influential. So come out to see me live. More shows to be announced soon. So for information on tickets and upcoming dates, go to AmericanHistoryLive.com. That's AmericanHistoryLive.com. Come see my Days That Made America tour live on stage. Go to AmericanHistoryLive.com. Imagine it's early in the morning on May 10th, 1775 at Fort Ticonderoga on the shores of New York's Lake Champlain. You've been stationed here as a British Army lieutenant for the past two years, and at the sound of gunfire outside your door, you sit up in your narrow bed with a sudden jolt. You kick off your blanket and stumble out of bed, desperate to wake your commanding officer, Captain Delaplass. You only have one leg in your trousers when a sudden pounding on your door causes you to freeze. Open this door and come out this instant. You hear me? Come out and surrender your men, you damn old skunk. It occurs to you that the attackers must have your room mistaken for the commanders. So with your trousers still in hand, you open the door to find a pair of armed men. One wears a scarlet coat with gleaming silver buttons, while the other is dressed in an old buckskin shirt and brandishing a sword. Show me your hands, if you'd just allow me to finish getting dressed. You're stalling for time until the captain appears, but the man wearing buckskin shakes his head, his eyes burning. We're going to sacrifice this entire garrison if you don't come with us this instant. Now wait a minute, you've got this all wrong. I don't have time for this. We must have immediate possession of the fort and all property of King George III. Your mind races as you struggle to reconcile the thought of these upstarts laying claim to the king's property. You force a thin smile, again trying to stall. And by what authority do you make these demands? The authority of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress. And what in the good heavens is the Continental Congress? The intruder presses the tip of his sword to your neck. Let me speak plainly. Lay down your arms, and you and your men will be treated like gentlemen. Just then, Captain Delaplass emerges in the hallway, hastily buttoning his coat. With one look at the intruders, he throws up his arms and surrender, and the man in buckskin narrows his gaze. Ah, so you're the one in charge. All right, come with us. The two men march the captain down the hallway. You finish putting on your trousers and follow, stunned by the absurdity of what just occurred. Nothing could have prepared you for the sheer audacity of these motley rebels,

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In May 1775, colonial militia leaders Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold led a tiny force of men to Fort Ticonderoga, a British garrison in upstate New York. In a matter of minutes, they took the fort by surprise, captured its priceless store of artillery, and gained a critical staging ground for future operations. Only three weeks had passed since the battles of Lexington and Concord ignited a full-fledged rebellion against Great Britain. That summer, colonial militiamen gathered in Boston to confront British regulars, while newly appointed Commander-in-Chief George Washington struggled to turn thousands of undisciplined amateurs into a unified army. And over the next year, the war would unfold in a confused and contradictory manner. Americans continued to profess loyalty to the king even as they engaged British troops in battle. But as the conflict wore on, Americans moved closer to a goal scarcely anyone imagined in 1775—the creation of an independent United States of America. This is Episode 2, Tis Time to Part. In the spring of 1775, a 34-year-old colonial militia captain named Benedict Arnold planned a secret mission to upstate New York. Arnold was headstrong and arrogant, but he also had natural charm, undeniable courage, and restless ambition on his side. Although he had no experience in battle, he persuaded Massachusetts leaders to let him attack Fort Ticonderoga on the southern end of New York's Lake Champlain. Stretching 120 miles down from the Canadian border toward the Hudson River, Lake Champlain was the primary route connecting British-held Canada to the Hudson Valley, known to the local Indians as the War Path of Nations due to its long-standing military significance. Ticonderoga guarded this strategic waterway, but Arnold knew the fort was run down and poorly garrisoned. He believed that if he could capture it, he could prevent British troops from attacking from Canada while also seizing British artillery to help the rebel forces in Boston. It might also help boost his own military career. So, with approval from Massachusetts its leaders, Arnold set off for New York with a small force. Along the way, he teamed up with Ethan Allen, the rambunctious leader of a ragtag Vermont militia called the Green Mountain Boys. And on the morning of May 10, 1775, the two forces surprised British soldiers in their beds, forcing them to surrender the fort in less than 10 minutes. They successfully seized much-needed arms for the rebel cause, and Arnold cemented his reputation as one of America's most capable military commanders. But that very same day, more than 300 miles south in Philadelphia, 55 delegates from all 13 colonies gathered at the Pennsylvania Statehouse for the Second Continental Congress. Before the First Continental Congress adjourned in the fall of 1774,

they had agreed to reconvene in May the next year. But now, in the wake of the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord, they would no longer simply be coordinating a united resistance to British rule, they would also be prosecuting a war. And in every colony the delegates hailed from, men were joining volunteer militia companies. Congress agreed on the need for soldiers and arms to confront the British army occupying Boston. But from the start, they faced a fundamental dilemma. There was still no consensus about the purpose of the war or whether the colony should seek independence or reconciliation. And in 1775, loyalty to the crown was deep-rooted and independence remained controversial. But even Pennsylvania's John Dickinson, one of the leading delegates in favor of reconciliation with the crown, resigned himself to war, declaring, while we revere and love our mother country, her sword is opening our veins. So for the time being, Congress would oversee a contradictory war, raising arms and asserting American rights, even as it continually emphasized loyalty to the king. And the debates in Philadelphia reflected broader divisions playing out across colonial society. On the one side were patriots who openly embraced the rebellion to protect colonial rights. These patriots found strong support in New England with its long history of self-government. On the other side were loyalists who saw resistance as treason, and these divisions within the colonies meant that war was not just a conflict with Britain, but a civil war that pitted brother against brother and father against son. Even leading Patriot Benjamin Franklin had a son who was a staunch loyalist. But the Patriot cause was bolstered in the spring of 1775 by the sight of thousands of redcoat reinforcements streaming into Boston. By June of that year, British General Sir Thomas Gage had 7,000 soldiers under his command. Facing this professional army were roughly 20,000 New England militiamen who had poured into makeshift camps around Boston from the surrounding countryside. The colonies had a long tradition of requiring able-bodied men to participate in the defense of their... communities. And united in anger against Britain, but little else, these poorly trained volunteers were tied more to their hometowns, neighbors, and locally elected militia captains than to any larger command. Their numbers included dozens of black men, both free and enslaved, as well as a company of Native Americans from Stockbridge, Massachusetts, who hoped to win favor and land protections by aligning themselves with the American cause. But few militiamen, whoever they were, believed that they were signing up for a long and drawn-out war. Militia service was traditionally temporary and part-time, and these men believed they could make a show of force and convince the British to back down before returning home to their farms. But for the moment, these militiamen were dedicated and marched on Boston. British General Gage planned an offensive on rebel positions on the Heights overlooking Boston, but after his plans leaked, 1,000 militiamen fortified Breeds Hill across the Charles River from Boston.

And the next day, on June 17th, in a battle mistakenly remembered as Bunker Hill, Gage and his commanders ordered British regulars to launch repeated assaults up Breed's Hill. The British finally captured the position after the Americans ran out of ammunition, but it came at a heavy cost. British forces suffered 1,000 casualties, a whopping 40% of their force, and more than twice as many casualties as the defenders. This costly Battle of Bunker Hill gave the Patriots a moral victory, despite their retreat, and showed that the rebel fighters could hold their own against the powerful British Army. In the wake of the disastrous losses at Bunker Hill, General Gage was called home and replaced by General William Howe, a wealthy, well-connected officer from a prominent military family. Howe was known for his bravery in battle, but had a reputation for indulgence. While leading the first assault at Bunker Hill, he had been joined by a servant carrying a decanter of wine on a silver tray. But by day's end, his stockings were slick with blood. During the fighting, Americans had deliberately targeted British officers, easily picking them out by their bright scarlet red coats, and Howe watched in horror as every member of his staff was killed or wounded. He was stunned by the terrible cost of the battle, writing, The success is too dearly bought. And while the British reeled from their hard-won victory, American forces focused on keeping the British troops bottled up within Boston, cutting off their land access and forcing them to rely on sea shipments for supplies. And over the next six months, the Americans settled into a sort of siege, exchanging occasional gunfire with the British while steadily building up their defenses. Then, on July 3, 1775, the Americans received new leadership when George Washington rode into Cambridge, Massachusetts to take up command of the newly created Continental Army. Rather than start from scratch, Congress adopted the patchwork of militias already in Boston to form the Army and named Washington as Commander-in-Chief. And by creating this Continental Army, Congress assumed responsibility for funding, supplying, and coordinating the war effort with the goal of transforming a loose collection of local militias into a centralized national force under a single commander. Washington had campaigned for the job for weeks, wearing a blue and beige uniform of his own design in Congress to remind his fellow delegates of his military experience and his readiness to serve. But he hadn't worn a real military uniform in two decades, and Congress ultimately chose him less for his battlefield credentials than for political expediency. The colonies remained deeply divided about their war aims, and the delegates hoped that as a wealthy and respected Virginia planter, Washington could serve as a unifying figure, someone who could bridge regional differences, align competing priorities, and reassure people that the Army of New Englanders in Boston would serve a broader American cause. But even so, Washington struck an imposing figure as commander. At 43 years old, he was tall and powerfully built, and he projected a

dignified presence that inspired loyalty and respect. One man who encountered him in Cambridge wrote, it was not difficult to distinguish him from all others. His personal appearance is truly noble and majestic. Another said, there is not a king in Europe that would not look like a valet by his side. Soon after arriving in Cambridge, Washington set up headquarters in a home abandoned by a loyalist who fled the city. From there, he and his officers took on the monumental task of turning a cluster of undisciplined and poorly armed militias into a national army. Imagine it's August 1775 in Boston, Massachusetts. You're a brigadier general in the Continental Army, and you're riding out to inspect the American lines. A sharp crack of gunfire shatters the morning quiet, and you spur your horse in its direction. You ride past a half-dug trench littered with abandoned shovels, and come to the edge of a small pond, where a group of riflemen dressed in fringed hunting shirts are aiming their long-barreled rifles at a flock of wild geese. Another shot rings out, and the geese scatter. You dismount and rush toward the men. Hold your fire! One of the men turn. around and looks at you with disdain. He's unshaven, and you note the half-empty jug of rum beside his feet. What's your name, soldier? Jeremiah Gordon of the Virginia Rifleman? Your company has orders to dig trenches. Why have you left your post? I reckon us riflemen are exempt from manual labor. Our skills are shooting, not shoveling, and our time is better spent at target practice. This is war, not a leisure tour, and it's not up to you to decide how your time is spent? Who gave you permission to quit your post? The man shrugs, his face focused on his rifle. The only orders I follow are my own. You take a step closer. You will look at me when you address me, soldier. But before he can answer, another man fires his rifle, and you jump at the sound. Stop firing this instant. I'm ordering you to return to your post. The bearded man thrusts out his chest, his eyes gleaming with defiance. Now I'll tell you what, officer, I'll think about it after we're done with shooting practice. You shake your head in disbelief at their insubordination and pull yourself into your saddle. Go back to your post. If I see you here again, I'll have you court-martialed. Without waiting for a response, you nudge your horse into motion and ride away. But much to your chagrin, another shot echoes through the air. You're beginning to doubt whether this ragtag army will ever have the discipline required to defeat the mighty British military. In the summer of 1775, the Continental Army sprawled out in a 10-mile arc around Boston. The soldiers were mostly farmers and skilled artisans, some as young as 15, others as old as 60. They wore a motley collection of uniforms, which included mismatched shirts and trousers in every color and condition, and headwear ranging from beaver fur hats to striped sailor's bandanas. And in August, their ranks grew even more varied,

with the arrival of Daniel Morgan's company of Backwoods Virginia Riflemen. They wore fringed hunting shirts and carried long rifles and tomahawks. And while hailed for their shooting accuracy, they quickly proved even more unruly than the New Englanders. Washington was shocked by the Army's poor discipline and lack of supplies. He expected to find 20,000 men, but discovered that only 14,000 were fit for service. And then he learned that there was only enough gunpowder for each soldier to fire nine shots in battle, and this news left him speechless. The state of the army forced Washington to reckon with his own limitations. His largest command during the French and Indian War had numbered just 1,200 men. And daunted by the challenge facing him, he often turned to the young, self-taught General Nathaniel Green for advice. Green was the Continental Army's most unlikely general. Although he was born into a peace-loving Quaker family, he had taught himself military strategy through books and became the Army's youngest brigadier general at the age of 33. Despite marching with a limp he suffered since childhood, the burly Green had a sharp mind and a strong resolve that earned Washington's respect. And after Bunker Hill, Green joked that if the British attacked again, the Americans would sell them another hill at the same price. But underneath this bluster was concern. There were persistent shortages of artillery, gunpowder, and supplies, and most troubling was the state of the army itself. Little connected the troops beside their shared sense of righteous anger toward Britain. Washington would have to unite men from 13 disparate colonies, and even he wasn't above showing regional biases, calling New Englanders exceedingly dirty and nasty. Nathaniel Green wrote a friend about his concerns, noting how raw and undisciplined the troops are in general and what warlike preparations are going on in England. And yet, despite Green's fears, the Continental Army did have important advantages. They were fighting defensively on home terrain, with a shared belief in what Washington called the goodness of our cause. This sense of purpose would be crucial for sustaining the American war effort, given Britain's financial resources, superior naval power, and professional army of 50,000 men. Still, the British faced the difficulty of spreading that fighting force across the vast American terrain. and they were 3,000 miles from home, a distance bound to cause supply and communication delays. Because of that distance, it wasn't until late August 1775 that King George III received news in London of the carnage at Bunker Hill. Shocked by the heavy British losses, he formally declared that the deluded people of the colonies were in a state of open and avowed rebellion. And now that the king had branded colonial leaders as traitors, the prospect of reconciliation drifted further out of reach, And over the next few months, a series of shocking British actions would only deepen the divide.

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In September 1775, George Washington planned an audacious move, a two-pronged invasion of Canada to prevent the British from using Quebec as a base for attacks and to inspire French-speaking Canadians to join the rebellion. Washington and other American leaders hoped that French Canadians would be sympathetic to the Patriot cause and could be convinced to support the fight against the British. And soon, two of Washington's forces marched north, each numbering more than 1,000 men. The first, led by Major General Richard Montgomery, planned to seize the British garrison in Montreal. The second, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, would mount a surprise attack on the city of Quebec. In the meantime, Washington struggled to break the long stalemate back in Boston. Although his army had the British surrounded, they lacked the artillery necessary to mount a successful attack against the British defenses. But then, one of his officers came to him with an idea. Henry Knox was a hulking 25-year-old Boston bookseller who had taught himself military engineering from the books he sold in his shop. Despite his youth and the fact that he was married to the daughter of a royal official, Knox impressed Washington with his sharp mind, affable personality, and fierce patriotism. And in the fall of 1775, Knox persuaded Washington to let him mount an expedition to the recently captured Fort Ticonderoga to retrieve dozens of cannons and mortars and bring them to Boston to be used against the British. After receiving Washington's blessing, Knox set out for upstate New York. He left in mid-November, just days before the first snow fell on Boston, marking the start of a brutal winter. In the weeks that followed, severe storms, scarce food, and rampant disease destroyed morale in both the British camps within Boston and American camps surrounding the city. Smallpox and dysentery claimed an estimated 20 to 30 lives every day, and one British officer complained that the city had become the grave of England. But while the British army was languishing in Boston, a British official in Virginia had his own idea of how to break American resolve. John Murray, the Earl of Dunmore, was the royal governor of Virginia, but as tension surged in the summer of 1775, he had fled the capital of Williamsburg and set up a base on a British warship off the coastal city of Norfolk, where he hoped to raise an army. He did manage to assemble a few British regulars and American loyalists, but his numbers fell short of expectations. So in November, Dunmore issued a proclamation designed to fill out his ranks and undermine the American cause. He targeted rebel plantations, promising freedom to any enslaved man who was willing to fight under the British flag. Imagine it's just before dawn in November 1775 at a tobacco plantation outside Richmond, Virginia, where you've been enslaved all your life. You're trying to slip away before anyone notices, and as you round your cabin and creep across a garden plot,

I'm face to face with your sister, Lucy. She drops the firewood in her arms and eyes the bundle you're carrying over your shoulder. Where are you going? I'm heading down to the creek for a bath. Oh, come out with it. You're not actually trying to run away, are you? Where the hell do you think you're going to? Well, I've got a plan, Lucy. I'm going to join the British Army. They're promising freedom to any slaves who take up arms for the crown. Lucy takes a step back, her mouth falling open in shock. Are you serious? How can you even consider fighting for the kings? Well, the patriots talk of freedom and liberty, but it's just talk. They don't mean to change things for people like us.

British, they're offering something real, a way out of this life. No, no, you're being reckless. It's bad enough for anyone caught running away from their plantation, but if the master catches you running off to fight for the British, he'll have your head. Well, I've weighed the risks. Have you? What will happen if the British change their minds and go back on their promise? What if they lose? And besides, what do you know about fighting in a war anyway? In the dim morning light, you can see tears forming in her eyes. But you look away, refusing to let her emotions get you. No, don't bother trying to talk me out of it. My mind's made up. But you take care, Lucy. And when this is all over, I'll save a little money and I'll come back for you. You give your sister a brief, tight hug, then push past her and head toward the woods. As much as you want to take a last look, you keep going, telling yourself that if you take this opportunity now, at least you'll have a chance. You know that if you stay here and let the war pass you by, you'll never be free. At the end of November 1775, Lord Dunmore wrote to British Commander-in-Chief William Howe, boasting, Their proclamation has had a wonderful effect. The Negroes are flocking in from all quarters. But Dunmore was no abolitionist. He offered freedom to enslave people purely in the hopes of disrupting the Southern economy by stripping it of its labor force. He also hoped it would have a powerful psychological effect. White Southerners lived in fear of slave uprisings, especially in Virginia, where slaves outnumbered free whites in many areas. The idea of putting weapons into the hands of enslaved men was a slave owner's worst nightmare. And that included George Washington, who called Lord Dunmore a monster, declaring, If the Virginians are wise, that arched traitor to the rights of humanity, Lord Dunmore, should be instantly crushed. In a letter to his plantation manager, Washington expressed fears for Mount Vernon, where he and his wife Martha owned roughly 200 enslaved men and women. And one of those men was Harry Washington, who fled Mount Vernon to join another 800 former slaves in a military unit Dunmore called his Ethiopian Regiment. Hundreds of enslaved women and children also sought freedom behind British lines. But while it proved a beacon of hope for the enslaved, Dunmore's proclamation failed to disrupt the American war effort. Instead, it hardened the resolve of Southern slave owners to defend their profitable plantation economy and push many toward the patriot cause. The hypocrisy of the colonists, demanding liberty while holding half a million black people in slavery, was not lost on observers. In 1775, the famous British writer Samuel Johnson wrote, How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of Negroes? Prominent patriots, including Benjamin Rush, John Jay, and Patrick Henry, acknowledged the contradiction. Nevertheless, most patriots clung to slavery as the very foundation of their own freedom and

prosperity. They were fighting a war to defend their property from British interference, and that property included thousands of enslaved people. They also refused to let debates over slavery interfere with the larger goal, the success of the rebellion. But by December 1775, the future of that rebellion hung in the balance. With militia enlistments due to expire at the end of the year, volunteers were returning home to their farms, and Washington faced the alarming prospect of his army disbanding. He managed to persuade officials in New Hampshire and Massachusetts to send him another 5,000 militiamen, but the manpower shortage soon forced him to consider an option he once deemed unthinkable, the enlistment of free black men. Even though black men had already fought at Lexington and Concord and Bunker Hill, that October Washington had relented to pressure from Southern slave owners and expelled black soldiers from the army. But on December 5, 14 army officers petitioned the Massachusetts Assembly to recognize the bravery of Salem Poor, a free black man who, they said, fought at Bunker Hill like an experienced officer as well as an excellent soldier. Whether or not Washington was aware of this appeal, shortly thereafter he wrote Congress, declaring that he understood that Black Army veterans were very much dissatisfied at being discarded. Mindful of these protests, desperate for manpower, and aware that enslaved men were joining the British, Washington decided to reverse his earlier policy. And on December 30, he allowed free Black men to enlist in the Continental Army. Salem Poor was one of the roughly 5,000 free black men who would fight with the Patriots over the course of the war. In the meantime, the war continued to unfold on multiple fronts. While Washington was keeping the British at bay in Boston with an army that had shrunk to just 8,000 men, Benedict Arnold was about to confront the British in Quebec following a miserable 350-mile trek. Over the course of 45 days, Arnold and his soldiers had trudged through the rugged Maine wilderness in the face of heavy snow and rash and so scarce they were left eating shoe leather and candles. Roughly half of the 1,000 men under Arnold's command had died or deserted during this march. But in December, the survivors joined forces with Major General Richard Montgomery's army and began planning an attack on the city of Quebec. They launched their assault on December 31st under the cover of a blinding snowstorm. But the attack ended in a disastrous defeat. Arnold was wounded in his leg at the start of the battle and Montgomery was killed. The French Canadians in Quebec saw the Americans as invaders and showed no desire to support the Patriot cause. Back in Boston, Washington was growing desperate for support and manpower as he faced a massive turnover of troops following the expiration of initial enlistments at the end of 1775. But he decided the turnover was an opportunity to reshape the army into a more

unified national force. So on New Year's Day, 1776, he announced the reorganization of the Continental Army, establishing 27 infantry regiments of more than 700 men each, alongside rifle and artillery units. From there on out, local part-time militias would be relegated to a supporting role, as opposed to the main backbone of the Army. But much to Washington's frustration, fewer than 10,000 men enlisted in the Continental Army for the new year, less than half the number Congress had hoped for. So to lift morale and foster a spirit of unity, Washington unveiled a new Continental Union flag, with 13 alternating white and red stripes representing the colonies. But despite the proud display, there was still a British Union jack in the upper left-hand corner, a symbol of lingering ties to Britain. But British actions were starting to drive Americans closer to the cause of independence. Word soon arrived that Lord Dunmore had set fire to Norfolk, Virginia, reducing it to smoking ruins. This news destroyed any remaining affection Washington felt toward Britain. He declared that he hoped the destruction of Norfolk would cause the colonies to unite against a nation which seems to be lost to every sense of virtue and feelings that distinguish a civilized people from the most barbarous savages. Then, on January 17, a writer delivered Washington the worst news of the war so far—the brutal defeat at Quebec and the death of General Montgomery. Washington was horrified. Although Congress had approved the invasion of Canada, the assault on Quebec was his own idea, and now many of his army's best leaders and militiamen had been killed, wounded, or captured. But the very next day brought a flicker of hope. Henry Knox had returned to Boston and announced that he had succeeded in transporting the artillery from Fort Ticonderoga. It was a mammoth endeavor. Over the course of two months, hundreds of men, horses, and oxen had hauled 55 cannons from the Hudson Valley to Boston. In the dead of winter, they had traveled through 300 miles of rugged forests, frozen lakes, and icy mountains. But now, Washington finally had the heavy artillery he needed to break through the British defenses in Boston. And he entrusted Henry Knox to oversee the offensive, placing him in charge of the Continental artillery even over more experienced men. So that on the night of March 4, 1776, Knox's men hauled their newly acquired cannons into Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston, and quickly fortified their position. When the British woke up and saw the Americans commanding the harbor and city, they realized that Boston was no longer defensible. After 11 months under siege, they hastily evacuated for Nova Scotia, Canada, and were joined by more than 1,000 local loyalists. Soon, all across the colonies, Americans celebrated their biggest victory so far, one that many thought would bring an end to the war. But George Washington knew better. Certain that the British would strike New York because of its valuable port and central location, he began marching the Continental Army toward Manhattan.

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In April 1776, while George Washington was moving the Continental Army to New York, he began to notice a shift in his soldiers' attitudes about what they were fighting for. Increasingly, Washington's countrymen seemed to favor not just freedom from British taxation and military control, but total independence. And these more radical views often came in response to an explosive pamphlet called Common Sense. The pamphlet's author was a recent English immigrant named Thomas Paine. The son of a corset maker, Paine had arrived in America poor, uneducated, and so sick with typhus that he had to be carried off the ship. But just one year after his arrival, in January 1776, Paine published Common Sense. In plain and simple prose, he boldly attacked the British monarchy and urged the colonies to establish a republic. He wrote, everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, tis time to part. His pamphlet was an instant bestseller. In three months, 120,000 copies have been sold, and newspapers across the colonies printed excerpts so that most literate Americans read all or part of it. No piece of writing did more to harden the colonists' resolve to break from Britain. This change in public opinion could not come soon enough for the man who led the independence faction in Congress, John Adams. A cousin of Sons of Liberty founder Samuel Adams and representative of Massachusetts, Adams complained that the colonists were fighting half a war, insisting that the conflict would never be won until the patriots aggressively pursued independence. He declared, if we finally fail in this great and glorious contest, it will be by groping after this middle way. And that spring, Congress took an important step away from the middle and toward independence by sending an envoy to Paris to secretly purchase arms, while also exploring the possibility of a French alliance. American leaders realized that independence would hinge on foreign support, but they also understood that France would only openly offer aid if the colonies formally declared independence. And to that end, support was growing within the broader population. Between April and June 1776, calls for independence poured in for more than 90 colonial communities, many arguing that the king had placed the colonies outside of his protection by waging war against them. And in mid-May, the delegates received a piece of disturbing news. Britain had hired thousands of German troops known as Hessians to help them defeat the patriots. Americans were outraged by the idea of their mother country hiring foreign mercenaries to crush the rebellion. And on June 7th, Virginia Delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution in Congress declaring that the colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states. John Adams seconded the motion, but after three days of fierce debate, the delegates agreed to

postpone a vote for three weeks to allow time for the resolution to gain unanimous support. Meanwhile, Congress appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration explaining their reasoning to the world. The task of writing the first draft fell to 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson, a tall, red-haired Virginia lawyer, planter, and slave owner. Despite his young age, though, he had already gained recognition as a brilliant writer. And Jefferson threw himself into the challenge. Writing in a rented room in Philadelphia, he drafted the immortal words, we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This soaring preamble expressed the radical idea that governments derived their powers from the consent of the governed, and that Americans had not only the right, but the sacred duty to govern themselves. But beyond the famous opening, the bulk of the Declaration consisted of a long list of the ways King George had abused his power. These grievances were meant to support the argument that separation was justified because the king had forfeited his legitimate authority. Over time, the Declaration would be remembered as the foundational text for American ideals of freedom and equality. But it also had a legacy far beyond Jefferson's intentions. His words would be invoked in the struggle to end slavery, the women's suffrage movement, and the independence movements around the world. But in June 1776, the fate of the Declaration was far from certain. When Congress reconvened on July 1, Pennsylvania moderate John Dickinson declared that breaking with Britain would be like braving a storm in a skiff made of paper. Afterwards, John Adams rose to speak, delivering a forceful plea for independence as thunder rumbled outside the meeting hall. Jefferson remembered that while Adams was not graceful, nor elegant, nor remarkably fluent, he spoke with a power of thought and expression that moved us from our seats. But when a preliminary vote was taken, only nine out of 13 colonies voted in favor of independence. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted no, New York abstained, and Delaware was split. With nearly a third of the colonies holding out, the delegates decided to postpone their final vote until the next day in hopes of gaining unanimous support for such a fateful decision. Imagine it's the night of July 1st, 1776 at Philadelphia City Tavern. The atmosphere is tense as you and your fellow delegates to Congress gather in advance of tomorrow's final vote on independence. You can feel the room's gaze as you maneuver through the crowded tables. You're a delegate from Pennsylvania, and earlier today you switched your vote in favor of independence, but four out of the seven members of your delegation voted against it, including your mentor, John Dickinson, who you find in a corner nursing a pint of ale. You sit down across

from Dickinson, and under the table, you twist the signet ring on your pinky finger, an old nervous habit. Well, sir, congratulations on your speech today. I was moved by the strength of your passion. Dickinson crosses his arms and leans back in his chair. And yet, it wasn't enough to stop you from voting against me. I take no pleasure in standing at odds with you, sir, but I must follow the will of the people of Pennsylvania. It's clear that the majority want us to vote for independence. I am not opposed to independence in theory, but can't you see that it's premature? How can we go down this path with no foreign alliances and with only the barest skeleton of a national government? Rushing independence will leave us isolated and leave us vulnerable. Well, I understand your concerns, but the fact is the independence faction has the majority in Congress. It would be a shame to proceed without Pennsylvania's backing. If you're trying to persuade me to change my vote, it won't work. After the speech I gave today, I cannot switch sides. It would mean betraying my own principles. I'm not suggesting anything of the sort, but could you excuse yourself during the vote? Why not slip out and take a walk? If you abstain from voting, the others might follow your lead and abstain too. Dickinson takes another sip of ale while you carefully consider your next words. Sir, I know how firmly you hold your convictions, but this is our chance to show our strength by speaking to the whole world in a united voice. Well, it is true that unity of purpose will be crucial to the success of the cause. Well, then please don't be the reason that Pennsylvania stands apart. I will consider it. Dickinson drains his glass and tosses some coins on the table. As he walks away, you're left in suspense, uncertain whether tomorrow's vote will unite Congress in common purpose, or lay bare your deepest divisions. On the morning of July 2nd, just as the doors of Congress were about to be shut, a mud-spattered Caesar Rodney of Delaware made a dramatic entrance. The previous night, after learning that his delegation was deadlocked, he jumped out of his sickbed, mounted his horse, and rode 80 miles through a thunderstorm to arrive in Philadelphia in time to break the tie. Not only did Delaware vote in favor of independence, but South Carolina reversed its position, too. And most significantly, Pennsylvania's John Dickinson, the leader of the opposition, as well as his colleague Robert Morris, agreed to take a walk during the vote, allowing the remaining delegates to swing Pennsylvania in favor of independence by a vote of 3-2. Only New York abstained because they had not yet received approval from their legislature in Albany. When all the votes were cast, 12 out of 13 colonies voted for independence. And two days later, on July 4th, 1776, Congress formally adopted the full text of the Declaration of Independence. The delegates there understood the gravity of the moment. The Declaration ended with the words, We may...

mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. This was not mere rhetoric. They knew that by declaring independence, they had committed an act of high treason against the British Empire. At the official signing ceremony, Benjamin Franklin summarized the stakes, declaring, We must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly, we shall all hang separately. News of the vote on independence rapidly swept through the now former colonies. On July 9th, George Washington had the declaration read to the troops in New York City, and a mob toppled a statue of King George III erected after the repeal of the Stamp Act, and had it melted down to use in ammunition. The decision to sever ties from Britain was a watershed moment in world history. The United States had done the unprecedented. The odds were stacked against them, and there would be no turning back, because while Congress was voting for all-out war for independence, the British Royal Navy was amassing the largest armada ever seen in American waters. From Audible Originals, this is episode two of our six-part series on the American Revolution from American History Tellers. In the next episode, George Washington undertakes a disastrous campaign for control of New York, raising serious doubts about his leadership of the Continental Army. But in the face of near collapse, Washington strikes back with a bold Christmas night crossing of the Delaware River. Follow American History Tellers on the Audible app or wherever you get your podcasts. You can listen to all episodes of American History Tellers ad-free by joining Audible. And to find out more about me and my other projects, including my live stage show coming to a theater near you, go to notthatlindsaygram.com. That's notthatlindsaygram.com. American History Tellers is hosted, edited, and produced by me, Lindsey Graham, for Airship. This episode is written by Ellie Stanton. Edited by Dorian Marina. Senior Producers Alita Rosansky and Andy Herman. Managing Producer Desi Blaylock. Audio Editing by Mohamed Shazib. Music by Thrum. Sound Design by Molly Bach. Executive Producer for Audible, Jenny Lauer-Beckman. Head of Creative Development at Audible, Kate Naven. Head of Audible Originals North America, Marshall Louis. Chief Content Officer, Rachel Giazza. Copyright 2026 by Audible Originals, LLC. Sound recording copyright 2026 by Audible Originals, LLC.

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